Miguel Covarrubias, the famous Mexican amateur anthropologist and
intrepid traveller, wrote in 1937 in his classic work Island of Bali
that "it seems difficult to reconcile the soft-mannered, peace-loving
Balinese we know with the intrigue and violence of their turbulent
past." And indeed the historians of Bali's past thousand years tell
tales that would put any modern soap opera to shame: stories of the rise
and fall of kingdoms, of bloody battles waged and beautiful maidens
won, of princes gifted with magical powers warding off evil demons
disguised as fierce, fanged monkeys and vicious, razor-beaked birds.
Bali's
written history begins in the 8th century, when Java's Indianized
kingdoms turned an eye toward the island's bounty. The Javanese, who had
already been introduced to the Buddhist and Hindu religions by South
Asian traders, spread these teachings to Bali, along with the knowledge
of writing in the Old Javanese language - known in Bali as Kawi - which
soon became the medium of communication for Bali's elites. By the 10th
century, Balinese art, religion and culture had taken on a decidedly
Indian appearance. One important relic of this era can be found today in
the midst of modern Sanur: the Prasasti Belanjong, an inscribed
monument dated 913 A.D. - making it Bali's earliest dated artifact -
that tells the tale of a Javanese king and his journey to Bali.
The
11th century saw the birth of one of Bali's most influential historical
figures: Airlangga, son of the Balinese Prince Udayana and the Javanese
Princess Mahendratta. Airlangga journeyed to Java, where he ascended
the throne of a dynasty that would rule on that island for the next 300
years. During Airlangga's lifetime, contacts between Java and Bali grew
increasingly close. Out of this cross-fertilization of cultures came a
number of social features that would mark the face of Bali for centuries
to come: rituals presided over by Hindu priests chanting holy mantras,
temples devoted to the worship of gods and divine ancestors, and the
means to effect magic, both good and evil, to harm one's enemies or heal
one's friends.
This period of Bali's history also gave rise to
the mythic tale of good and evil that continues to enthrall visitors
with its fearsome power: the story of Rangda and Barong. Legend has it
that Airlangga's mother, Mahendratta, possessed among her many queenly
accomplishments a command of the dark forces of transformation that
enabled her to change from a beautiful woman into a horrific witch able
to rain disease and death upon her enemies. When her husband found her
dabbling in these dangerous arts, he banished her to the forest, where
she remained, nurturing her evil powers, until her daughter reached the
age of marriage. Fearing Mahendratta's black magic, no one dared to
marry the young princess, despite her esteemed status and her lovely
looks. Wild with anger and driven to revenge, Mahendratta shifted her
shape into that of a hideous witch, armed with spiked teeth, a tongue of
fire and heavy, hanging breasts, to spread plague and pestilence across
the land. Today the story is reenacted in the drama of Calonarang,
where a mythological beast, the lion-like Barong, protects the suffering
villagers from the demonic powers of the witch, known as Rangda. In the
performance, traditionally held in the dead of night in the village
graveyard, the followers of the Barong attack Rangda, who uses her magic
to send them into trance and make them turn their daggers against
themselves. The Barong's power protects them from the blades and helps
them push the witch back into the cemetery, restoring the balance
between good and evil until the next encounter.
The most critical
turning point in Bali's history came in the 14th century, when the
Javanese kingdom of Majapahit sent an army led by the revered general
Gajah Mada to colonize Bali. Different versions of the tale of
Majapahit's conquest exist, but the basic story goes something like
this: At that time, Bali was ruled by a cruel and greedy king named
Bedaulu. Although he possessed great magical powers, he angered the gods
by forbidding his subjects to worship them, requiring instead that they
make their offerings to him. Bedaulu was so arrogant that he once
removed his head and sent it up to heaven to show the gods what awesome
spiritual skills he commanded. Annoyed by this boastful display, the god
Siwa replaced Bedaulu's head with that of a pig. Embarrassed by his new
animal appearance, the king ordered that none of his courtiers was to
look at him, and he had them build a high tower where he would sit,
presiding over his subjects free from their curious stares. But Bedaulu
still had not learned his lesson. His evil grew to the point where he
demanded that all his food be spiced with human blood. Finally, his
desperate people sent word to Java, asking for aid from Majapahit. Gajah
Mada promised to help if the king did indeed have a pig's head, and he
sent one of his soldiers to investigate. In order to catch a glimpse of
Bedaulu, the cunning Javanese tricked the king by requesting the food
known as paku, a long, stringy green that is eaten by lowering it from
above into one's mouth. Facing upwards toward the tasty morsel, he was
able to verify Bedaulu's beastly countenance, and called for Gajah Mada
and his troops, who conquered Bali and set in place a new king who ruled
from Samprangan, near Klungkung.
With the arrival of the
Majapahit empire came vast changes in the cultural, religious and
political landscape of Bali. Only the people known as the Bali Aga, who
kept themselves distant by retreating to their isolated mountain
villages, escaped encompassment by the new social order. As the Javanese
installed their own nobles to preside over Bali, the island's
population became drawn into a hierarchical system controlled by warrior
kings and learned priests and divided into castes. Today, Balinese
speak of history in terms of the pre-Majapahit and post-Majapahit eras,
and those who can trace their genealogies back to the mighty rules and
sages of that time still claim high social status in the present. When
the Hindu Majapahit empire finally fell in the 16th century, brought
down by the rise of Islam across the Indonesian archipelago, a new wave
of priests, scholars, nobles and artists sought refuge on Bali, which
would remain the last Hindu island in the land.
Over the next four
hundred years Balinese culture flourished around the royal courts.
Elaborate rituals were staged, and Bali's famous cremation ceremonies
came into existence as a means of showing honor and loyalty to the
ruling lords. Art, dance and music prospered, not as purely aesthetic
activities but as service on behalf of gods and kings. This era saw the
rise of what later anthropologists would describe as the Balinese
"theater state": a complex combination of extravagant art and ceremony
designed to celebrate the power and majesty of the royal families and to
express the humble deference of their followers. But this period was
hardly a peaceful one. The seat of the kingdom of Bali moved to Gelgel,
and the king who presided over it was given the title of Dewa Agung, or
"Great Lord," a reference to both his worldly and spiritual powers. One
of these kings even managed to bring parts of neighboring East Java and
Lombok under Balinese control. But the kingdom soon became fragmented by
family feuds, and Gelgel splintered off into a number of smaller
principalities, which remained in a state of constant war and intrigue
until the turn of the 20th century.
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